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The Counter-Reformation, led by figures like Ignatius Loyola who founded the Jesuits, spurred a burst of creativity in Catholic Europe, influencing art and culture. However, this culture eventually fossilized, while Protestantism continued to innovate and embrace new ideas and technologies.

Protestantism has a natural evolutionary capacity because it's based on a personal relationship with God, allowing new sects to form easily. In contrast, Catholicism requires centralized approval from the papacy for shifts, which limits its flexibility.

The Catholic and Protestant churches were powerful in pre-modern Europe due to the weak state, providing social organization and fostering ideals of personal responsibility and individualism.

Alec Riri's book 'Doubt' explores the history of atheism, suggesting that the Catholic-Protestant theological disputes contributed to a society where Christianity permeated but wasn't enforced, allowing for the growth of secular thought.

Atheism became dominant in 18th century France due to resentment towards the Catholic Church's rigidity and the lack of religious freedom. This secular tradition developed in response to a strong centralized government and the Church's resistance to change.

During the Dark Ages, the Catholic Church faced theological disputes, particularly with Arian Christians like the Visigoths and Ostrogoths. These groups believed Christ was a man connected to God, not divine. This theological stance led to political tensions and oppression of local Catholics by these Germanic elites.