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The conversion of the Franks to Catholicism was a strategic alliance with the local ruling class, enabling them to become the predominant military power in Western Europe. This contrasts with the Visigoths and Ostrogoths, who opposed the local ruling class by adhering to Arianism.

The Counter-Reformation, led by figures like Ignatius Loyola who founded the Jesuits, spurred a burst of creativity in Catholic Europe, influencing art and culture. However, this culture eventually fossilized, while Protestantism continued to innovate and embrace new ideas and technologies.

The Catholic Church played a pivotal role during the Dark Ages by preserving knowledge. As the Roman Empire fell, the Church acted like Asimov's 'Foundation,' maintaining and reintroducing civilization through social engineering and the preservation of classical Greco-Roman lore.

In the 14th century, the Catholic Church's arrogance led to a conflict with the king of France, who murdered the pope and installed a French pope. This period, known as the Babylonian Captivity, marked a low point for Catholicism.

The Catholic Church in medieval Europe allowed for a surprising amount of political discourse, providing structures for what could be agreed upon and what could not. This openness to disagreement is a notable aspect of the Church's influence at the time.

Alec Riri's book 'Doubt' explores the history of atheism, suggesting that the Catholic-Protestant theological disputes contributed to a society where Christianity permeated but wasn't enforced, allowing for the growth of secular thought.

Atheism became dominant in 18th century France due to resentment towards the Catholic Church's rigidity and the lack of religious freedom. This secular tradition developed in response to a strong centralized government and the Church's resistance to change.

In the High Middle Ages, the Catholic Church's influence was so pervasive in Western Europe that it shaped the very identity of its people. They identified first as Christians rather than Europeans, and this religious framework influenced everything from science to ethics.

During the Dark Ages, the Catholic Church faced theological disputes, particularly with Arian Christians like the Visigoths and Ostrogoths. These groups believed Christ was a man connected to God, not divine. This theological stance led to political tensions and oppression of local Catholics by these Germanic elites.

Universities in medieval Europe originated as Catholic institutions and became key in developing cities as organizational alternatives to the Church. By the 12th century, they began secularizing, showing Europe's rapid adoption of logical traditions from Byzantines and Muslims.